Strategies in organizations often fall along a spectrum between deliberate and emergent approaches. Understanding where a strategy lies on this continuum can provide insights into how it was formed and how it should be managed. This post explores the various types of strategies as outlined by Henry Mintzberg and James A. Waters in their paper, Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent (1985).
The Spectrum of Strategies
Mintzberg and Waters describe strategies as existing on a continuum from deliberate to emergent. Deliberate strategies are those that are planned and realized as intended. Emergent strategies, on the other hand, are patterns that develop despite or in the absence of deliberate strategies.
The spectrum consists of 8 different types of strategies: Planned, Entrepreneurial, Ideological, Umbrella, Process, Unconnected, Consensus, and Imposed strategies.
1. Planned Strategies
Planned strategies are characterized by clear, articulated intentions that are backed by formal controls. These strategies are formulated by leaders who strive to implement them with minimal distortion. For example, a technology company may plan the development and launch of a new product, ensuring every step is carefully controlled and executed according to a detailed plan. This type of strategy assumes a stable, predictable environment where the plan can be executed as intended.
The primary advantage of a planned strategy is its ability to provide clear direction and consistency in execution. It minimizes surprises and ensures that all parts of the organization are aligned toward the same goals. However, the major drawback is its inflexibility. Planned strategies can be too rigid to adapt to unforeseen changes in the environment, making the organization vulnerable to unexpected challenges
2. Entrepreneurial Strategy
Entrepreneurial strategies emerge from the vision of a single leader who has personal control over the organization. This strategy is common in entrepreneurial firms where the owner can impose their vision on the company. For instance, a startup founder might pivot the company’s direction based on new market opportunities, leveraging their ability to make quick decisions. These strategies are adaptable, allowing the leader to react quickly to new opportunities or threats.
The key advantage of entrepreneurial strategies is their flexibility and responsiveness. They allow for quick decision-making and adaptation, which is crucial in dynamic and competitive environments. However, this approach can also be risky. The success of the strategy heavily depends on the vision and decisions of a single leader, which can lead to instability if that leader’s judgment is flawed or if the leader departs.
3. Ideological Strategy
In an ideological strategy, the members of an organization share a collective vision. This vision is pursued as an ideology, leading to consistent patterns in behavior. Such strategies are highly deliberate, rooted in shared beliefs, and often resistant to change. A non-profit organization driven by a mission to eradicate hunger might follow an ideological strategy, with every member committed to the cause and working towards the same goal.
The main advantage of ideological strategies is the strong alignment and commitment of the organization’s members to the shared vision. This can foster a strong organizational culture and high levels of motivation. However, these strategies can be hard to change. The deeply ingrained beliefs can make it difficult for the organization to adapt to new circumstances or to innovate beyond the established ideology.
4. Umbrella Strategy
An umbrella strategy involves leaders setting general guidelines and allowing other actors within the organization to maneuver within these boundaries. This type of strategy is both deliberate and emergent. Leaders establish the overall direction, but the specifics are left to emerge as actors respond to their environment. For example, a multinational corporation might set a broad goal of increasing market share in emerging markets, allowing regional managers to develop localized strategies that fit within this overarching objective.
Umbrella strategies offer a balance between control and flexibility. They provide clear direction while allowing for adaptability and innovation within the set boundaries. The drawback is that without careful monitoring, the actions taken within the umbrella may drift away from the original intentions, leading to a lack of coherence in the overall strategy.
5. Process Strategy
In a process strategy, leaders control the process of strategy making rather than the content. They influence outcomes indirectly by managing who gets to make decisions and the context in which they operate. This type of strategy is partly deliberate and partly emergent. A pharmaceutical company might control the R&D process, setting stringent protocols and standards, but leaving the discovery of specific drugs to the scientists and researchers.
The advantage of process strategies is that they allow for decentralized decision-making while maintaining overall strategic coherence. This approach can foster innovation and responsiveness. However, it requires strong leadership and effective process management. If the processes are not well-designed or if the wrong people are chosen for key roles, the strategy can fail.
6. Unconnected Strategies
Unconnected strategies occur when a subunit or individual within an organization has enough discretion to pursue their own pattern of actions. These strategies emerge independently of central intentions and can sometimes contradict them. For instance, a university department might develop its own research focus, independent of the overall university strategy, leading to unique advancements in a niche field.
The main advantage of unconnected strategies is the high level of innovation and creativity that can result from giving individuals or subunits the freedom to pursue their own paths. However, this can also lead to a lack of alignment and coherence within the organization. If too many unconnected strategies develop, it can be difficult to achieve unified goals.
7. Consensus Strategy
Consensus strategies emerge when many different actors in an organization converge on the same pattern of behavior. This happens without central direction, through mutual adjustment and learning from each other. These strategies are more emergent than deliberate. A software development team might find that agile methodologies naturally become the norm as team members collaboratively adopt practices that enhance productivity and quality.
The advantage of consensus strategies is that they can lead to strong buy-in and cooperation among members of the organization. They often result in practices that are well-suited to the needs and preferences of the team. However, the process of reaching consensus can be slow and inefficient. It can also result in compromises that may not represent the best strategic choice.
8. Imposed Strategies
Imposed strategies are dictated by external forces. This can be through direct imposition by a powerful external individual or group or through the environment severely restricting the organization’s options. These strategies are the most emergent, though they can become internalized and deliberate. For example, a government regulation might force a manufacturing company to adopt new environmental standards, fundamentally changing its operational strategies.
The main advantage of imposed strategies is that they can quickly align the organization with external requirements or realities, ensuring compliance or competitiveness. However, they can lead to resistance within the organization. When strategies are imposed from outside, members may feel a lack of ownership and motivation, potentially leading to lower engagement and effectiveness.
Understanding the different types of strategies helps organizations navigate the complex process of strategy formation. Deliberate strategies offer direction and control, while emergent strategies provide flexibility and responsiveness. Both are essential for effective strategic management.
Mintzberg and Waters conclude that “strategy formation walks on two feet, one deliberate, the other emergent.” Effective management requires balancing these two approaches, directing actions while remaining open to evolving patterns.
Citation: Mintzberg, H., & Waters, J. A. (1985). Of strategies, deliberate and emergent. Strategic Management Journal, 6(3), 257-272